Gol-o-Morgh (Flowers and Birds) Painting in Persian-Mughal Album (Muraqqa)

Document Type : Research Paper

Author

Master’s degree of Handicrafts, Faculty of Applied Arts, University of Art, Tehran, Iran.

Abstract

Introduction: The painting of flowers and birds was formed as a theme in Iranian painting during the Timurid period. This style of painting developed from Tashiir which was drawn on the margins of the albums and was noticed by painters like Shaikhi Naqqash and Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad. Undoubtedly, the influence of Chinese flower and bird painting on them is undeniable. In the Safavid era, the pardaz technique underwent a significant transformation, becoming softer and more refined. The migration of two groups of Iranian painters to the Gurkani court during this period had a significant impact on the painting of flowers and birds in Gurkani albums. Mansur or Mir Musavvir, along with his son Mir Ali, was among the first to arrive, followed by Shafi'i, who is considered the most important painter of flowers and birds in the history of Iranian painting. Shafi'i established an independent genre in Safavid painting by preserving past visual traditions, which we now recognize as the painting of flowers and birds. While Western engravings influenced the depiction of flowers and birds in Gurkani albums, Iranian painters emphasized perspective and often highlighted specific elements. During the Zand-Afshar period, the painting of flowers and birds appeared on the margins of Safavid and Gurkani albums, and these combinations were also visible on the positive and negative spaces of penboxes known as Qalamdan. The representation of flowers and birds no longer followed conventional perspective rules, and the size of the birds and flowers was often the same, sometimes even larger. In the Qajar period, the creation of albums reached its peak, particularly during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah. Artists such as Muhammad Baghir, Muhammad Sadigh, Muhammad Hadi, and Mirza Baba played a significant role in shaping these albums. With the emergence of photography, even photos were included among the pages of calligraphy and painting albums.
Purposes & Questions: The purpose of this research is to identify and classify the historical periods, examine the characteristics, and conduct a comparative analysis of flower and bird paintings in the Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar albums. Accordingly, the aim of this research is to address the following questions: 1. What is the significance of the works of flowers and birds in the Timurid albums? 2. What are the visual features of Timurid, Safavid, and Qajar albums? 3. Which artists have a greater role in displaying flowers and birds in the Qajar albums?
Methods: The research method is qualitative, and it was selected using a purposivesampling method with the index of at least one flower and bird painting based on library research.
Findings & Results: The results indicate that in the floral and bird paintings of the Timurid period, visual features such as diagonal compositions, horizontal frames, and emphasis on bird species are observed. In Safavid albums, vertical compositions, birds painted alone or flowers painted alone with their species identified, imaginary landscapes devoid of perspective, but realistic depictions of flowers and birds are seen. In Mughal albums, painters extensively relied on imaginative approaches to depict flowers and birds while painting birds realistically with natural backgrounds. This research introduces and names some of the Golestan Palace albums from the Qajar period for the first time, noting mainly vertical compositions, identified flower species, imaginary arrangements, neutral backgrounds, birds always positioned below the rose, and an indeterminate light source. Many sketches were drawn for painting on lacquer works.
In conclusion, flowers and birds painting during the Timurid period can be traced through the works of Sheikh, and in "tash'ir," flower and bird painting became an independent art form. While the Eastern style of painting was widespread, it began to fade in the late Timurid period. During the Safavid era, the representation and perspective of flower and bird painting were emphasized, considering the influence of Western works. The Zand-Afshar period saw a shift towards more imaginative depictions of flowers and birds, with a focus on floral decoration in positive and negative spaces. The art of album making continued to evolve in the Qajar period, with a greater emphasis on the use of photography.
Overall, the classification of albums provides a fascinating insight into the development of Iranian painting over the centuries. The enduring influence of pre-Islamic visual traditions, combined with the impact of Western works and the evolution of new artistic styles, have all contributed to the rich and diverse art of album making in Iran. The depiction of flowers and birds has played a significant role in this art form, with each era bringing its own unique interpretation and style to this timeless subject.

Keywords

References

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Negareh Journal
Volume 20, Issue 76
January 2026
Pages 6-23

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  • Receive Date: 04 June 2025
  • Revise Date: 25 October 2025
  • Accept Date: 06 November 2025

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